Blood
Blood is a human tissue composed of a solid portion, the formed elements, and a liquid portion, the plasma. The formed elements correspond to red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, each with its specific functions. In general, blood serves to transport substances to tissues, providing them with essential compounds such as oxygen and glucose, which will be used by cells for the most diverse functions. The amount of blood in a human body corresponds to 7% of its mass, so a person weighing 70 kg has about 5 liters of blood.
Composting
Composting enables the recycling of nutrients contained in various organic residues, which should not be mixed with other materials. Animals such as beetles and earthworms can participate in this process, which, together with fungi and bacteria, decompose the waste. The result is a solid compost and a liquid biofertilizer, the slurry, both rich in nitrogen, carbon, minerals, and microorganisms. This process can be carried out at the household or agricultural level, so it can vary. The product can be used in vegetable gardens, gardens or in agriculture with several advantages, among them, it is a renewable resource that replaces fossil equivalents.
The Alpha Particle Scattering experiment
The Alpha Particle Scattering experiment (He2+) involved observing the trajectory of these particles as they collided with a thin metal foil. It was observed that the majority of alpha particles passed straight through or experienced a slight deflection. However, approximately 1 in every 20,000 particles underwent a deflection greater than 90º, with some even reversing their direction back toward the initial path. Considering the high kinetic energy of alpha particles and their positive charge, these significant deviations could only be explained if the majority of atomic mass were concentrated in a small, positive nucleus. In addition to qualitatively indicating the existence of the nucleus, this experiment also provided measurements of its charge and size.
Virus General Structure
Viruses are the smallest infectious particles. In addition, viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, that is, they need living host cells to replicate. A virion is a complete, fully developed, infectious viral particle composed of nucleic acid surrounded by a coat called a capsid. In addition to it, some types of viruses may also have an envelope called an envelope. The presence or absence of this extra envelope classifies viruses into two groups: enveloped viruses and non-enveloped viruses.
Longitudinal Waves
Waves are oscillations that propagate through various mediums, transporting energy, not matter. They exhibit characteristics such as amplitude (the distance from the equilibrium point to the highest or lowest point of the wave), wavelength (the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs), frequency (the number of complete oscillations per second, measured in hertz), and speed (the rate at which it propagates). Longitudinal waves, where the disturbance is parallel to the direction of propagation, like sound and seismic waves, are fundamental in areas such as medicine, geology, and physics, helping in understanding natural phenomena and in the development of technologies.
Refraction
Refraction is a phenomenon that occurs when waves travel from one medium to another, changing their angle of incidence due to a change in speed. This effect is influenced by the refractive index, which varies according to characteristics such as temperature and the nature of the medium - a higher index means lower light speed, with the vacuum being the medium of the lowest index. In everyday life, refraction can be seen in situations like in a pool where the perceived position of an underwater object differs from the real position, or in the appearance of "melted" asphalt, caused by the refraction of light in the heated air above it.
Spherical Mirrors
Spherical mirrors, classified as concave (converging) and convex (diverging), are important in optics because they reflect light to form images. Concave mirrors concentrate light rays at a focus, while convex mirrors cause these rays to scatter. Convex mirrors create small virtual vertical images, regardless of the object's position, making them appear further away than they actually are. This type of mirror is widely used in safety and surveillance applications due to its wide field of view, as well as in car side mirrors and aberration correction in optical instruments.
Hubble
The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990 into an orbit of approximately 570 km altitude and remains in operation. Shortly after its launch, a failure was discovered in the fixation of its primary mirror, causing an optical problem and compromising its use. A repair mission was sent in 1993. Historically it is one of the most important instruments for the development of Astronomy, allowing discoveries in several areas of Astronomy. The data of the discovery of the accelerated expansion of the Universe, of the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics, were obtained by him. It is a collaboration between NASA and the European Space Agency.
Diffraction
The diffraction of light is a phenomenon that occurs when light encounters an obstacle or opening, deviating and spreading in various directions due to its wave nature. Constructive and destructive interferences result in diffraction patterns when incident on obstacles or openings, patterns that are perceptible on detection surfaces and influenced by the size, shape, and wavelength of light. Diffraction is fundamental in science and technology, contributing to the understanding of light's properties in physics, aiding in the design of optical devices in engineering, and being explored in areas such as material analysis and spectroscopy.
Protein Degradation
Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids connected through bonds. peptides. In the small intestine, the proteins come into contact with the pancreatic secretion, which is rich in proteolytic enzymes. Such enzymes cleave (break) the bonds peptides until dipeptides, tripeptides and a few amino acids remain resulting from the complete digestion of proteins. Finally, peptidases enzymes present in the microvilli of enterocytes hydrolyze (break down) the dipeptides and tripeptides remaining into amino acids so that they can then be absorbed.
Landfill sanitary
A sanitary landfill is the place intended for the environmentally appropriate disposal of non-hazardous solid waste such as household, commercial and industrial wastes, primarily non-recyclable. The by-products resulting from the decomposition of tailings deposited in landfills are leachate (a liquid effluent) and biogas (a gaseous biofuel). For environmental and safety reasons, an additional infrastructure must be used to capture, store and treat these by-products, and soil waterproofing layers should be included to protect the groundwater. After the full use of the landfill, it is possible to transform it into a green area.
Prism
As light traverses two mediums with distinct refraction indices, it changes direction, with part of its energy being transferred to the denser medium. This change depends on the refraction index and the angle of incidence. In prisms, light decomposes into its color components due to deviation at different angles, resulting in a rainbow. The phenomenon of refraction occurs when light, passing from one material to another with different speeds, deviates from its path. In white light, which is a mixture of all colors of the spectrum, each color, having a distinct wavelength, is refracted uniquely.
Lysogenic Cycle
Viral multiplication can occur in two ways: Lytic cycle or Lysogenic cycle. In multiplication through the lysogenic cycle, the host cell is not destroyed after the replication process. In this cycle, the viral genome attaches itself to the cell's genetic material and multiplies along with it. Thus, when the cell undergoes mitosis, the viral genetic material will also be transmitted to the daughter cells, promoting the multiplication and infection of the new cells produced. After the lysogenic cycle, some viruses assume reproduction via the lytic cycle in order to leave the cell. The herpes virus is an example of a virus that uses the lysogenic cycle as a multiplication mechanism.
Macroscopic View of Breathing
During the process of pulmonary ventilation, atmospheric air must travel through the airways. This path starts in the nasal passages where the air enters and is partially filtered and humidified. Subsequently, the air passes through the pharynx, part that is shared with the digestive system and where the epiglottis is, only then passes through the larynx. The air then reaches the trachea, a cartilaginous tube that also has mucus as a barrier for filtration. From the trachea, air is carried to the bronchi, bronchioles and then finally to the alveoli, which are small bags covered by capillaries that receive air so that hematosis can then occur.
Double Stranded Virus
Viruses can be classified in some ways, one of them is according to the nucleic acid they have. Viruses can have both DNA and RNA, but never both together. Furthermore, the nucleic acid of viruses can be single-stranded or double-stranded. That is, the genetic material of single-stranded viruses can be either DNA or RNA. Depending on the virus, the nucleic acid can be linear or circular. And in some viruses (like the flu virus), the nucleic acid is segmented.
Joule effect
The Joule effect is the physical phenomenon in which electrical energy is converted into thermal energy (heat) when an electric current passes through a conductor. Inside this conductor - such as a wire - its atoms collide with free electrons (charge carriers) and heat is generated. The resulting heat depends on the resistance of the material, the electric current and the time the current flows. This phenomenon is independent of temperature, but increases under high temperature conditions, and all materials with electrical resistance (non-zero) are subject to the Joule effect.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria is the organelle responsible for transforming chemical energy into easily usable energy for the cell. Through the enzyme ATPase releases the energy stored in ATP. The degradation of carbohydrate, lipid and protein molecules is carried out in the cytoplasm, then enters the mitochondria where the Krebs Cycle begins. Subsequently, the electron transport system located in the inner membrane releases energy that is used to form ATP. In addition, mitochondria have their own DNA and RNA, their ribosomes are smaller than those present in the cytoplasm. This organelle has an outer membrane and an inner membrane, which has projections towards the interior, the mitochondrial cristae. The compartment bounded by the inner membrane contains the mitochondrial matrix. The amount of mitochondria and cristae per organelle is proportional to the energy metabolism of the cells.
Alveoli lined with capillaries
The alveoli are like thin membrane bags that are filled with air. Very fine blood capillaries cover the alveoli. To get an idea of the thickness of the alveolar capillary, imagine the red blood cell, it needs to “squeeze” to pass through this vessel.
Quantum Jump
The concept of the quantum jump originated from Niels Bohr's atomic model, proposed in 1913. Bohr postulated that electrons in an atom occupy specific, quantized orbits with distinct energy levels. According to the Bohr model, an electron in its stationary state possesses a fixed and defined energy. Nevertheless, when an electron absorbs energy, it can transition to a higher energy level, entering an excited state. This abrupt change from one energy level to another is commonly referred to as a quantum jump. However, the excited state is unstable, and after a brief period, the electron returns to its original energy level, releasing the absorbed energy in the form of light.
Single Stranded Virus
Viruses can be classified in some ways, one of them is according to the nucleic acid they have. Viruses can have both DNA and RNA, but never both together. Furthermore, the nucleic acid of viruses can be single-stranded or double-stranded. That is, the genetic material of single-stranded viruses can be either DNA or RNA. Depending on the virus, the nucleic acid can be linear or circular. And in some viruses (like the flu virus), the nucleic acid is segmented.